Case study: Somalia case (1991-1995)
- Famine => starvation => people died
- Successes of UN: provide food and humanitarian help to the people
- Failure: late response, reluctant to help, disagreement among the UNSC, affect the later mission like in Rwanda, Bosnia, Haiti, and so on.
Wars as genesis for pieces of security governance
- War is a fundamental problem in international politics
- Security governance started in the 20th century
- There are several challenges to the peace in the 21th century:
o Changing in the nature of the conflicts (non-internationalized to internationalized)
o Complex humanitarian disasters (genocide or ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity, natural disasters,…etc)
o WMD
o Terrorism
- Pieces of security governance:
o A global IGO
o Norms on the use of force
o International conventions
o Regional collective defense treaties
o Enforcement mechanisms
o Peaceful settlement mechanisms
o Peacekeeping
o Humanitarian intervention
o Peacebuilding
a. IGO venues for security
- Both League of Nations and UN are peace-loving organizations
- In the League of Nations Charter and UN, the principle of peaceful settlement of disputes is stated clearly
- Both organization adopted the idea of collective security of Woodrow Wilson
- UN also works closely with other regional organizations and NGOs to promote the international peace and security
b. Norms related to use of force
- Outlawing war:
o Pact of Paris or Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)
o Article 2 of UN Charter
o Ex: Iraq invasion of Kuwait; US attack on Iraq
- Promoting humanitarian concerns
o 1949 Geneva Conventions and its two Additional Protocols (1977)
o Genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, prohibition on the use of biochemical weapons
o Genocide Convention
o Just war tradition (self-defense):
§ Right authority
§ Just cause
§ Right intentions
§ Last resort
§ Proportionality
§ Reasonable hope of achieving the desired outcome
§ Relatively rapid withdrawal of forces
§ However, the sovereignty of states is undermined due to the establishment of international customary law and treaty law to promote the protection of international peace and security
§ International commission on intervention and state sovereignty (ICISS)
§ Six criteria for military intervention for human protection:
§ Right authority
§ Just cause
§ Right intention
§ Last resort
§ Proportional means
§ Reasonable prospects
c. Linking IR theories and security governance
- Realist: hard (use of force); soft (diplomacy and mediation)
- Liberalist: creation of international law and international organizations
Mechanisms for the peaceful settlement of disputes
- 1899 and 1908 Hague Conferences => Conventions for the Pacific Settlement of international disputes
- Hague Convention => prevent war
- The involvement of UN, IGOs, NGOs, individuals, or states is to find a peaceful settlement of a conflict
- Peaceful settlement of disputes does not completely mean no use of force
a. Preventive diplomacy
- Preventive diplomacy is an act of preventing disputes between parties, to prevent existing disputes from escalating to conflict and to limit the spread of later when they occur
- Preventive diplomacy is intended to change the calculus of parties regarding the purposes to be served by political violence and to deter them from choosing to escalate the level of conflict
- Introduced by UNSG Boutros Boutros Ghali in 1995
- Rarely successful
b. Mediation
- Mediation is a mode of negotiation in which a third party help the parties find a solution which they cannot find by themselves
- The mediation is successful or not depends on “hurting stalemate” or “ripeness” of the dispute
- Key to successful mediation
o Adaptation
o Relationship with dispute parties
o Ability and willingness
c. Adjudication and arbitration
- Adjudication and arbitration refers to the referring of disputes to an impartial third party tribunal for binding decision
- Adjudication and arbitration still require consent of the State parties
- Arbitrators: lawyers, judges, diplomats, academics, former governmental officials
- Adjudication: ICJ ruling
- They are used in resolving territorial disputes; questions of river usage; and fishing zones
Collective security, enforcement and sanctions
- Collective security is based on the conviction that peace is indivisible and that all states have a collective interest in countering aggression whenever and wherever it may appear
a. Collective security efforts involving armed force
- Korean war(1950) and the gulf war (1990)
b. Enforcement and sanctions
- Sanction decade is in 1990s
- Sanction is imposed in order to challenge of getting a state that threatens international peace and security to change its behavior; it must be done to close off alternative markets and sources of supply of the target state
- NGOs also play important role in the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of sanction
- In the case of Iraq:
o Three types of problems with comprehensive sanctions:
§ Large scale humanitarian effect
§ Did not necessarily impose any economic pain on government leaders and the compliance rate is low
§ Not effective against the leaders of armed fictions or in the environment absent of effective government control
Peacekeeping
- Peacekeeping is an operation involving military personnel; but without enforcement powers, undertaken by the UN to help maintain or restore international peace and security in areas of conflict
a. Distinguishing between enforcement and peacekeeping
- The main difference lies in the use of force and the consent of the parties to the conflict
- Peacekeeping has more advantages over collective security and enforcement
- The size of the force varies from time to time and from mission to mission
- UN does not possess its own standing army; therefore it depends on member states to contribute the forces
b. First-generation peacekeeping (traditional peacekeeping)
- Was used during the Cold War period in the Middle East and decolonization process in Africa and Asia
- To monitor truces, troops withdrawals or provide a buffer zone and authorized to use force only in self-defense
c. Second-generation peacekeeping and peacebuilding
- The difference from the first generation is the muscularity of response (use of force) and consent of parties
- To end violent conflicts, especially civil wars, but also how to prevent renewed hostilities and rebuild stable polities
- Need to assure state consent => Complex peacekeeping
d. Third-generation peacekeeping: blurring the line with enforcement
- No need state consent
- Need for greater use of force to protect refugees and civilians from attack or genocide, to impose ceasefire, and perhaps to compel [arties to seek a peaceful resolution
e. Evaluating success and failure in peacekeeping
- First-generation peacekeeping:
o Successful in combating the violence in conflict
o Fail in preventing further violence, and improving the incentives for parties to resolve their conflicts
- Second-generation peacekeeping:
o Successfully carry out its mission in many cases like Cambodia, East Timor,…etc
o Does not carry out the mandate well
o Unstandardized military forces
- Third-generation peacekeeping:
o The result is mixed: success in some cases while no successful in other cases; depend on the situation of the conflicts
f. Humanitarian intervention
- Humanitarian disasters: displaced population. Refugees, starvation, genocide,…etc
- Not really successful because:
o The response is too late
o Selectivity
o Errors and controversial issues
Arms control and disarmament
- Limiting, controlling, and reducing the weapons for waging war
a. Putting arms control on the agenda
- 1899 Hague Conference
- Article 26 of UN Charter: UNSC is given right to regulate the armaments
- Several bodies were created:
o Disarmament commission
o Atomic energy commission
o Commission for conventional armaments
b. Limiting proliferation of nuclear weapon capability
- 1957 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
- 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT)
- 1970 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear weapons (NPT)
- 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
o To prevent the declared nuclear weapons states and other parties to the treaty from developing new weapon designs
o To reconfirm the strong international norms again nuclear proliferation
- Regional nuclear free zones (Latin America, Southeast Asia, South Pacific, and Africa)
c. Chemical and biological weapon prohibition
- 1969 Chemical and biological weapons (CBW) became agenda in UNGA
- 1975 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)
- 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
- 1997 Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
d. Banning landmines
- Were used in the 1990s by irregular military forces on Angola, Afghanistan, Cambodia, and Bosnia
- 1992 International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL)
Putting together for security governance
- Arab-Israel conflict
- Other Middle East threat to international peace
New threats to security: coping with terrorism
- The goals are to limited to overthrowing a government or leader, or gaining an independent Tamil, Palestinian, or Basque homeland, but include eliminating Western, and especially American, presence in Islamic holy lands
- Common terrorist attacks are the use of bombs on airplanes, trucks, cars, ships, or suicide bombs
- The most controversial point is the definition of terrorism
- September 11, 2001
