Not only the United Nations is the primary global organization, but the regional organization also plays the important role in the global context. The European Union represents the most extensive regional organization, and the other organizations in the rest of the world are progressive. The regional organizations were emerged in the purpose of peace and security, socio-culture, economics, and functional and technical cooperation.
The Roots and Dynamics of Regionalism
The rational for regionalism is that states in the given geographic area share more common background and approach, common problems, and common interests. Thus, regionalism can be defined that the participating states share the geographical proximity and a degree of mutual interdependence.
Defining a Region: Regionalism is better defined as “sustained cooperation, formal or informal, among governments, non-government organizations, or the private sector in three or more countries for mutual gain. Sometime, regionalism is marked by the same geographic and political space.
Political Factor Driving Regionalism: Several political factors in the regional organizations are internal and external threats, domestic politics, and leadership. Internal factors might include common culture and religion; external factors could include a common security or economics threat. Domestic politics frequently become a significant variable affecting regional governance initiative. It can take a strong domestic political coalition. Leadership must be required from key players in the region as an energetic secretariat to give the direction.
Economic Factor Driving Regionalism: Regionalism can be driven by high levels of economic interdependence. The desire to attract foreign investment through creation of a larger market is commonly linked to regional economic initiatives. However, economic factor alone have rarely sufficed as a basis for successful regional cooperation. The primary goal of regional economic cooperation has often been the political and security benefits of cooperation.
There are two waves of regionalism. First wave accompanied the initial stages of European integration in the 1960s. The second wave began in the late 1980s, accompanying the European moves toward the single internal market and European Union.
Europe’s Regional Organizations
After the World War II, Western Europe and Eastern Europe were separated by bipolar system. The Eastern Europe under Soviet domination joined together in the Warsaw Pact of common defense and the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) to manage their economic relations. On the contrary, the Western Europe with the US established the European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) and NATO in military purpose. However, after the Soviet was collapsed, only the NATO and OEEC were survived. OEEC became EEC (European Economic Cooperation) and was integrated to EU (European Union).
NATO is the most highly organized regional security organization in the world. It was establish to counterpart with the Warsaw Pact. However, after the collapse of Soviet, NATO was transformed to be a collective defense alliance to an organization contributing to overall European security. Post-cold war enlargement of NATO is to keep peace and security in order to maintain democracy, the rule of law, and individual liberties. In new post-cold war role, NATO’s transformation has also involved new contributions to European and international security. First, it took a role in stabilizing the Balkans. Then, the operation in Bosnia and Kosovo was the NATO military action. Since the global war against terrorism began in September 2001, NATO has moved to adapt to this new security environment.
The European Union is a unique entity involving much more commitment than any other regional organization. This may be because of the strong European integration.
1951 Establishment of Europe Coal and Steel Community (6 members)
1957 Treaties of Rome establish European Economic Community and European Atomic
Energy Community (6 members)
1962 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) launched
1968 Completion of Customs Union
1970 Launch of European Political Cooperation (foreign policy coordination)
1973 First Enlargement (3 countries)
1979 Launch of European Monetary System
First direct elections for European Parliament
1981 Second Enlargement (1 country)
1986 Single European Act launches single market program and adds environment and social
Third Enlargement (2 countries)
1992 Maastricht Treaty on European Union
1995 Fourth Enlargement (3 countries)
1997 Treaty of Amsterdam extents competence over Justice and Home Affairs
1999 Launch of common monetary policy and single currency (euro)
2002-2003 Draft Convention on the Future of Europe
2004 Fifth Enlargement (10 counties)
Evolution of Regionalism in Americas
The attempt starts with:
-the convened the Congress of Panama in 1826 to create an association of newly independent Latin American states. But failed.
-in 1889 the first of nine international conferences of American states creates International Union of American Republics. Then renamed to pan American Union in 1910.
-the last of these conferences in 1948 create the Organization of American States (OAS). And a separate initiative: the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) for regional collective defense was signed in 1947.
Two approaches to American regionalism:
-Hemispheric regionalism or pan Americanism: encompassing the entire Western Hemisphere.
-Sub regional integration: promoted regional cooperation and economic integration among Latin American countries as a strategy for development and has involved a large number of subregional initiatives.
-The coexistence of these two approaches reflects the most significant characteristic of Americas: the enormous disparity in size, power, and economic wealth between the United States and all other states.
After year of weakness, regional integration efforts in Central and South America proliferated in the 1950s and 1960s.The schemes varied from significantly from loose trade arrangement(as in Latin American Free Trade Association, or LAFTA) to more interventionist integration systems(Andean Group), but most were little more than empty shells.
Again, regionalism in Latin America made a strong come back with
-the Cold War’s end
-settlements of the Central American conflicts
-the end of ideological conflict
Key factors these are:
-the move toward democracy in all Latin American countries except Cuba
-the acceptance by most government of neoliberal market capitalism
-the effects of globalization including Latin American’s fear of being marginalized in the world economy
-a new agenda of transnational problems including drug trafficking and environmental concerns
However, key to inter-American hemispheric regionalism has been the amount and type of attention the United States gave to Latin America.
Hemispheric Regionlism
The Organization of American States (OAS)
The OAS is the most comprehensive IGO in the Americas, a multifaceted institution that has become far more active since the Cold War’s end than during its early history.
-established in 1948
-with 21 countries adopted charter of OAS
-21 member also signed The American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and the Rio Treaty.
-in 1991 include 14 more nations à 35 members
The charter of OAS includes provision for:
-strengthening regional peace and security
-common action against aggression
-limiting conventional weapon
-promoting representative democracy
-seeking solution of political, juridical and economic problems
-promoting economic, social, cultural cooperation and eradication of extreme poverty
Organ of OAS:
-Primary Organ:
-General Assembly – Highest decision making body
-the Permanent Council or Organ of Consultation under the Rio Security Treaty – Peace and Security matter
-the Inter-American Council for Integral Development – created 1996 for partnership approach to development
-the Secretariat
The Role of OAS:
-Mutual Security and collective defense: involve collective defense against aggression from outside the region and peaceful settlement of disputes and interventions among the American states themselves.
-Promoting democracy: both inside and outside the region
-Fostering economic and social development: focus on development need and preferential treatment in trade and finance
The summit of the Americas Process
-1967 president invite leaders of 33 others countries in Americas to the first hemispheric summit known as the Summit of the Americas Process
-the summit process has become the most important force of reform of the OAS
The summit agenda include
-consolidating and strengthening democracy
-drug trafficking
-trade
-environmental protection
-poverty
-health
-education
-job creation
However, there is still challenge to OAS as the center of hemispheric regionalism with the possibility that summit process and action items will divert resources and attention.
Subregional Integration
NAFTA: North Americas Free Trade Association
Is a model for free trade area. The text of NAFTA is so detailed that the explanation for such precision and thoroughness is to clarify commitments and minimize misinterpretation in the absence of common institutions.
Is a complex set of bargains about trade and nontrade issues that advances North America toward closer economic ties.
Mercosur: Common Market of the South (Mercado Comun del sur)
-created in 1991 by the Treaty of Asuncion with Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil and Argentina.
-represent somewhere between common market and free trade area
Mercosur goal:
-economic integration is a central part
-stimulating broad regional cooperation
-enlarging the political voice of the member countries
Organ:
-The Common Market Council
-Common Market Group
-Trade Commission
The Caribbean Community or CARICOM
-established in 1973 as the successor to the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA)
-include 15 states
CARICOM goal:
-economic development
-trade expansion
-labor standards
-functional cooperation in area such as education, disaster emergency response, agricultural development, health and gaining greater leverage in dealing with other states and groups of states.
Institution:
-Conference Head of Government
-Community Council of Ministers
-four ministerial Council
The Central American Common Market (CACM)
-established in 1960 by Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador and later by Costa Rica
-based around the use of regional integration as a means to expand market size while protecting local manufacturers from outside competition through import-substitution policies
The Andean Community
-established in 1969 by Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela
Goal is to :
-development through a common external tariff
-common economic policies
-liberalization of trade within the region
-reduce their external vulnerability
-improve their position in international economy
Organ:
-Andean Presidential Council
-Council of Foreign Ministers
-Court of Justice
-Commission
-Parliament
-Social conventions
-business and labor advisory council
Asia’s Regional Organizations
-unlike other Asia regionalism has been both belated and limited
-main actor in Asia regionalism are China, Japan and US
-There are two main track in Asia regionalism:
-Formation of Association of Southeast Asia Natons (ASEAN) in 1967
-1990s, Australia and Japan provided leadership for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
ASEAN
-established in 1967 by Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand
-core principle of ASEAN is nonintervention in the internal affairs of other members
-ASEAN Way, which is the process of formal consultation and consensus building, is preferred. It is to avoid legalistic procedure, a preference for nonbinding resolutions.
Main goal:
-regional peace and stability
-human rights and the environment
-broader regional security through its sponsorship of the ASEAN Regional Forum
Structure:
-various ministerial meeting
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
-established in 1989
-members are refer to as “economies” not countries
Goal:
-to facilitated intergovernmental dialogue on economic policy issues with the goal of sustaining growth and development.
-to support a process of confidence building among countries of the region that have no tradition of multilateral cooperation and were reluctant to create a regional organization that might compete with ASEAN or lead to dominated by US and Japan.
Structure:
-operate informally with consensus decision making.
-informal meeting of trade and foreign ministers
As the only institutionalized forum for heads of government from all Pacific Rim countries, they have some value just as a means of facilitating intergovernmental communications at the highest level.
Asia-Pacific Security Dialogue in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)
-began its annual meeting in 1994 with 21 countries in Asia and around Pacific participating
-no formal membership
-no arrangement on what primary security were, except South China Sea
-consensus decision making and is weakly institutionalized
Role:
-issues of confidence building
-peacekeeping operation
-maritime search and rescue
-and the role of Institute for Strategic and International Studies (ISIS) and Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific (CSCAP)
So Asia has problem with
-identity construction
-community building
Africa’s Regional Organizations
From the Organization of African Unity (OAU) to the African Union (AU)
-in May 1964 The OAU is established by 31 newly independent African states
Principle:
-a loose association based on voluntary cooperation, whose resolutions would carry moral rather than legal obligations
-states were sovereign equals
-states agree not to interfere in the domestic affairs of fellow member
-territorial boarders were sacrosanct with no room for alternation in the status quo
Over time each of these principles has been violated.
-in July 2002, the OAU was replaced by the African Union
Beside the previous principle AU make more principle:
-commitment to democracy and respect for human rights
-intervention by the AU is acceptable in situations of war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity
AU objectives:
-promotion of sustainable development
-good governance
-social justice
-gender equality
-good health
Organ:
-Assembly Head of State and Government – supreme organ – debate, decide issue, adopts resolutions
-Executive Council – execute the decision of Assembly
-General Secretariat replaced by commission, which is headed by a chairman rather than a secretary-general
-Court of Justice
-Pan-African Parliament
-Peace and Security Council
-Economic, Social and Cultural Council
-Financial institutions
Overall, the OAU record with regard to peace and security is quite positive.
In fostering economic development: the goal is to create and eventual continent-wide common market and structures and institutions to govern the market
Subregional Integration Initiatives
Problems encounter:
-wide variety of governments
-overwhelming problems to be addressed
-lack of financial resources to make a real difference
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
-the largest and most ambitious subregional grouping
-established in 1975
-with the goal of becoming a common market
-but with its slow process, the ECOWAS serve more as political dimension rather than economic dimension
Southern African Development Community (SADC)
-is successor to the Southern African Development Coordination Conference
-established to reduce economic dependency on South Africa
Agenda:
-broad economic
-social
-environmental
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
-a larger regional organization than SADC
-consist of 20 members
-established in 1994 to replace the Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa
Goal:
-to take advantage of larger market size
-foster economic and social cooperation
Middle East Regional Organization
-the weakest regional organization and the fewest attempts to create structures for cooperation and
Coordination of policies.
The league of Arab States
-formed in March 1945
-created as a manifestation of Arab unity, in a period when Arab states had recently gained independence and were eager to assert themselves against the great powers of the time.
-lead by its council which is composed of the foreign ministers of each member states.
-meet twice a year, any two country can call it into special session
Arab League has never been a model of harmony.
The Gulf Cooperation council
-created in 1981
Created in response to several new threats in the region including
-the Iranian Revolution of 1979
-the Soviet Union invasion of Afghanistan
-the war between Iran and Iraq
Mandate:
-cooperation in economics, finance, trade, customs, tourism, legislation, scientific progress, and foreign investment
Organ:
-supreme council: meet annually and is composed of the heads of state of the six member states
